(i) Liberals believe that individuals have some 'natural rights' including the right to resist oppression, accumulate property, freedom of religion, right to express their opinions freely and so on. They believed that governments and rulers must be made to respect these rights.

(ii) They thought formulation of public laws and constitutions were the best method of creating and enforcing these rights. These laws and constitutions were the best safeguard against arbitrary exercise of power by rulers and government machinery.

(iii) They also objected to state authorities dictating the religious beliefs of their people through national churches, as religion was a private matter.

(iv) With the growth of popular movements liberalism was forced to acknowledge the extension of political and citizenship rights to all members of society and not just the propertied classes. These included rights to form organisations and participate in elections.

(v) Liberalism is also connected with certain economic ideas. Liberals saw people as economic agents, as producers and consumers of goods and services. They saw these as important aspects of their personalities and self expression of individuals. But to them it was not the labourer but the profit seeking merchants, shopkeepers and manufacturers who were the heroes.

(vi) They also argued for free trade. So far economy the best government is that which governs least and leaves everything to the market operations.

(vii) By 1900 many liberals argued that government should intervene in a minimal fashion by introducing some welfare measures for the poorer sections of society-like education and health. But their basic ideas remain till today. They represented mainly the interests of propertied people.

(viii) The socialists represented the interests of the working people, and argued that in industrialist capitalist societies the old tyranny of the monarchy and the aristocracy had been replaced by that of the propertied capitalist bourgeoisie. Some earlier socialists, such as Louis Blanc and Robert Owen believed that co- operatives of producers would lead to more equal sharing of profits.

(ix) Karl Marx believed that workers would never be fairly rewarded under the capitalist system. This would happen only if all enterprises were commonly owned i.e., if the state owned them for the equal benefit of all.

(x) He said that in a communist society when all means of production were held in common and were not private property, each person will contribute according to his/her capacity and receive according to his/her needs. Social justice, therefore, required abolition of private property. Classes would also cease to exist in a society which was equal.

(xi) According to him the ultimate goal of the socialist movements was the establishment of such a society.

(xii) He also said that since the ruling classes would not cooperate in this, a revolution was necessary. There should be communist parties and strong and committed working class movements.